Marigolds are among the happiest of flowers. Beautiful and resilient, they have literally colonized the globe. There is a long and rich history of human engagement with them, and this engagement extends well beyond their just having a pretty face. Some social and cultural history and some practical horticultural guidance follows.
A Flower of the Aztec Empire
On November 8, 1519 about 400 Spaniards under Hernán Cortés (1485-1547), with about 1,000 native allies, entered Tenochtitlán, the as many as 300,000 person capital of the Aztec Empire. Present-day Mexico City is built on its ruins. Recent scholarship contends that Moctezuma II (1466-1520) (aka Montezuma) invited them to enter out of curiosity and, perhaps, an intention to ultimately destroy them. They were awed by a dazzling city in the center of a lake: beautifully painted, clean, organized, and resplendent with flowers. Many of the flowers were what we call today marigolds. The Aztecs called them cempoalxóchitl (in Nahuatl); the Spanish later called them cempasúchil. The Aztecs used the term to encompass several Tagetes species; but most directly Tagetes erecta. They bred the flower for size and depth of color. The literal translation of cempoalxóchitl means “flower of twenty petals.” They were called in Spanish “Clavel de Indias,” the “Carnation of the Indies.”
Marigolds were cultivated on the chinampas, floating agricultural islands, which surrounded Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards also found imposing and beautiful temples in which human sacrifice was practiced. Blood sacrifice had long been a component of Mesoamerican religions and marigolds had long had a role in other Mesoamerican cultures, notably the Maya. Research shows that Mesoamerican cultures used the flower to adorn idols, priests, and sacrificial victims long before the Aztecs. Marigolds were used in healing, but were also sacred, playing a role in a diversity of ceremonies.
Naturalists and scholars of the 16th century had wide interests, and, not long after the conquest, there was some careful and assiduous work to describe and preserve knowledge of the cultures and environments of what was now New Spain. There were several important efforts. In addition to Sahagún’s anthropological work (mentioned below), of central importance is the 1552 work compiled by the young Aztec physician baptized as Martin de la Cruz, which was originally in Nuahatl and then translated into Latin as Libellus de Medicinalis Indorum Herbis. You can read it in English as the inexpensive paperback An Aztec Herbal. Its history is succinctly, but thoroughly related in the scholarly article authored by Chavarria and Espinosa cited under Sources. The late 16th century Historia de las plantas de Nueva España compiled by Francisco Hernández (1514-1578), which also had a complicated publication history, is also invaluable (see the entry cempoalxóchitl in the 1942 edited volume ii, book iv, chapter CLXXIX, pp, 644-652). For a survey of Tagetes uses not only in Mexico, but worldwide, see Robert Trostle Neher’s 1968 article “The Ethnobotany of Tagetes.” The medical indications are not recommendations for use, but an indication of use. For a general dive into Aztec pharmacology, with examples from the above primary sources, begin with the Mexicolore websites Four Hundred Flowers: The Aztec Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Part 1. Yauhtli and Cempoalxóchitl, Cempoalxóchitl, and How to cure stiffening of the serpent: herbal medicine, Aztec style. For full citations to the works mentioned above consult the list of Sources.
Tagetes has been an international genus for a long time and a search of the Web retrieves many scientific articles published around the world, written for scientists, exploring chemical composition, uses or possible uses, and suggesting efficacy. Modern scientific study suggests that Tagetes extracts may be valuable in contemporary medicine and support claims of efficacy in traditional medical applications. For a deep dive into this literature, try PubMed.
Returning to the Aztecs, what we call Tagetes lucida and Tagetes erecta were burned along with copal (aromatic resin from the copal tree) in the incense burners associated with the imposing Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán. The musky scent was believed by the Aztecs to carry messages and prayers to the gods. In short, marigolds had an ancient and highly developed role in pharmacology, theology, and artistic expression and symbology.
The Day of the Dead
The marigold’s “sacred” role continues today in Día de los Muertos or Day of the Dead celebrations, which are held November 1-2. Día de los Muertos is an enormously popular celebration in Mexico in particular and is celebrated among many Americans of Hispanic heritage. The Day of the Dead celebrates life by creating a special occasion for remembering and honoring deceased loved ones. The celebration is even recognized with an American postage stamp on which – just coincidentally — marigolds are prominent.
The observance is living history. It has long been interpreted as an amalgamation or blending of indigenous and Christian religious belief and practice in conquered Mexico, which ultimately resulted in a holiday that fits Aztec custom and belief (see Mexicolore’s The Art of Aztec Mourning) and complements in some ways the Roman Catholic All Saints Day and All Souls Day. Some scholars argue, however, that it more closely reflects and resembles the festivals of medieval Spain. (For this, see the Wikipedia article for a quick introduction.) It can mean different things to different people and be mystical or symbolic, but at its core, it celebrates life, honors the deceased, and is a time to experience the life-infusing power of love and memory.
For those observing the holiday, spirits are summoned back to life either mystically or symbolically. The marigold, a symbol of life’s brevity, serves as a lure and a guide. Yellow and orange marigolds (Tagetes erecta) – in Spanish, in this context, Flor de Muertos – call and guide the dead “home” with their odor and color. Various rich food and drink offerings on family altars, altares de muertos or ofrendas, do the same. Marigold petals are sometimes symbolically strewn as a path to guide returning souls and bundles of marigolds are lovingly placed on graves.
For a thoroughly enjoyable introduction to the holiday’s essential meaning and symbols, consider watching Disney Pixar’s Coco (2017). The film is rich in orange marigolds, including a marigold bridge connecting the lands of the living and the dead. It won numerous awards including the 2017 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Animated Film and 2018 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. For a response to the film’s critics, see Smithsonian folklorist Cynthia Vidaurri’s Did Disney Pixar Get the Day of the Dead Celebrations Right in Its Film ‘Coco’? For a different perspective entirely, consider watching the documentary and concert film Flor de Muertos (2011), which features the music of the band Calexico. Rest easy, there are marigolds! It begins with Día de los Muertos in Mexico and ends with an All Souls Day procession in Tucson.
Examples of the Columbian Exchange
After the conquest, the Mexican marigold made a series of its own conquests. It became a beautiful part of the Columbian Exchange: the exchange between the New and Old Worlds of plants, animals, diseases, metals, technology, culture, ideas, and people. Exchange occurred within continents and hemispheres as well. The marigold was accompanied on its journey by petunias, poinsettias, sunflowers, and zinnias. It was not uncommon to find marigolds in the United States shortly after the Revolution. A related species, calendula, had been grown in English colonial gardens.
The flower arrived in India with Portuguese merchants in the 16th century and took the subcontinent by storm. From weddings, to family, religious and civic events, to funerals to Diwali (the symbolic celebration of the victory of good over evil, light over darkness, and knowledge over ignorance), Tagetes became the preeminent celebratory flower, replacing all others. The conquest was the same as the New World chili’s replacement of India’s native pippali or long pepper. The flowers are used to adorn people and the doors and windows of homes and as offerings to Hindu gods. The marigold is a symbol of goodness and happiness. In other traditions, it is identified as a symbol of “inner light,” but also as a symbol of embarrassment and grief. Across time and place, different species can have diverse meanings; for instance, Tagetes patula can symbolize creativity and passion, but also jealousy, grief, and uneasiness (see Dani Rhys’ Marigold Flowers Meaning and Symbolism for an introduction).
Tagetes erecta are raised to meet the huge demand for marigold garlands in India. Those unable to acquire real flowers resort to paper and plastic representations. The marigold has become a national symbol of India and the happiness it evokes finds a home in many cultural expressions, including India-focused popular movies in the West: Marigold (2007), The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel (2012) and The Second Best Marigold Hotel (2015). Some may also remember the marigold-consumption in Monsoon Wedding (2001).
Curiously, there was an effort to make the marigold our national flower, but it was defeated by the rose in 1986. In our current moment, it’s worth noting that Tagetes tennuifolia, patula, and erecta are recognized as national symbols of Ukraine; but the sunflower, a marigold relative, is Ukraine’s national flower.
Will the Real Marigold Please Stand Up
Long before the New World marigold (Tagetes) was discovered, there was another plant with the same name living on the other side of the world. Here is where confusion begins. Europe already had a marigold. Its properties, uses, and folklore were well established. But the English applied the same name to the New World flower. Vernacular names can lead to confusion. The system developed by Carl Linneaus (1707-1778), however, makes the difference clear. The Old World marigold we know as Calendula officinalis and the New World marigolds as Tagetes. Both are members of the Asteraceae family (among the many plants included are lettuce, daisies, sunflowers, chrysanthemums, asters, dahlias, and zinnias), and while they are similar, there are differences. For useful overviews of the plant’s characteristics, visit the Wisconsin and North Carolina extension Calendula websites. It can get confusing; for instance, Shakespeare liked marigolds (and flowers in general), but he was responding to Calendula officinalis, or maybe, at least sometimes, Glebionis segetum. And, of course, the symbolic association of the marigold with the Virgin Mary developed around Calendula officinalis.
Even within the Tagetes genus there is confusion, since the French marigold did not originate in France, and the African marigold did not originate in Africa. All the Tagetes species originated in the New World, with representatives in southwestern America, tropical America, and South America. Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula are native to present day Mexico and Guatemala. In addition, Tagetes species have been able to reproduce and spread worldwide and establish populations in areas in which they are not native, a process called naturalization. The genus name Tagetes is aptly derived from the name of an Etruscan prophet said to have founded the Etruscan religion, and, after emerging from a plowed furrow, addressing the Etruscans.
Widely Known Marigolds
Tagetes erecta Commonly known as the African marigold, Aztec marigold, American marigold, Mexican marigold, cempoalxóchitl, and cempasúchitl. The African designation has nothing to do with its origin, only with the probable route it traveled to reach Europe or the place of its early spread.
Tagetes patula Commonly known as the French marigold. Once again, the geographic designation has nothing to do with its origin.
Tagetes lucida Commonly known as the Mexican marigold, Mexican mint marigold, Mexican tarragon, sweet mace, Texas tarragon, and pericón. Perennial.
Tagetes lemmonii Commonly known as Copper Canyon daisy, Lemmon’s marigold, mountain marigold, and Mexican marigold. Perennial.
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Tagetes minuta Commonly know as black mint, Muster John Henry, wild marigold, and Stinking John Henry.
Tagetes tenuifolia Commonly know as signet marigold, golden marigold, and lemon marigold.
Propagating and Planting
Marigolds are remarkably easy to grow. They can easily be started from seeds, cuttings, sowed directly after danger of frost has passed, started in small pots, milk or water jugs, water, or purchased as seedlings. There are many types of marigold, and within the same species, for example Tagetes erecta, you will find a great variety — many cultivars — distinguished by color, blossom, habit, and height. If marigolds become your passion, you will be compelled to sow seeds. This will result in time enjoyably spent scanning catalogs and websites.
Again, starting seeds in jugs and containers indoors or outside will enable you to save a little money and to sprint into the growing season. Provide drainage by drilling holes in the bottom of containers and water the growing medium and then the seedlings with a mister. Whenever seeds are planted, if the soil is warm and moist, germination can occur in less than a week and blooms appear in about one and half months. Once seedlings break the surface — and are large enough to handle — thin them to spacing appropriate to their anticipated size at maturity. If seeds are planted too deeply, germination will be retarded or simply fail to occur. Plant at a depth of one-quarter inch or follow seed packet directions. Young plants and plants of all ages transplant without drama so long as moist, warm soil conditions prevail. In fact, if you allow flowers to go to seed, you may see self-sowing throughout the growing season. Some crosses between Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula — the ‘Zenith™’ series, for example — are popular hybrids; however, if you’re a seed saver, remember that while seeds from hybrids may germinate, you may not get exactly the plant you’re hoping for. This is succinctly explained in a Toronto Master Gardener piece, Growing Marigolds from Seed and Cross Pollination.
Flower breeders hoped to give Mother Nature a nudge into variations in the 1920s and 1930s by irradiating seeds. The International Atomic Energy Commission Agency explains Mutation Breeding. The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds, a play, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1971 and its film adaptation, which debuted in 1971, explores this effort. David Burpee (1893-1980), son of the founder of the W, Atlee Burpee Seed Company, was a championship marigold breeder. In this regard, he is remembered, for his patient and ultimately successful effort to encourage the development of a white marigold. To accomplish this, he sponsored a contest with a $10,000 prize, offered in 1954, but not achieved and rewarded until 1975. Apparently, development was through progressive seed selection targeted at this characteristic.
More on Planting and Nurturing
Marigolds require well-draining soil and lots of sun to reach a full and healthy adulthood. Too much heat though and they can look scorched; however, they are drought-resistant. Water plants when about the top inch of soil is dry. Drench the soil, watering the base of the plant. Keep an eye on containers, which may require more frequent watering. Marigolds are hardy; a little neglect is unlikely to result in death, although the appearance of the plant may be affected.
Marigolds come in a variety of heights and spreads. Tall varieties can collapse, and benefit from pinching back (especially when young), staking, and sometimes replanting at a slightly greater depth. If you want to keep large plants small, the negative consequences of planting too close may be somewhat positive for you. They respond to fertilizer (try a 12-6-6 balanced fertilizer) — do not overdo it — but generally they do not need it. They respond enthusiastically to deadheading, but will seemingly thrive without it. To encourage a bushy habit in any marigold, pinch back young plants. The best pH for soil is a neutral 6.0-7.0/8.0.
Essentially, the only significance of hardiness zones relates to the start and end of their growing season. It’s easy to see why marigolds have found homes around the world. For specific guidance, read the directions on seed packets (if planting from seeds) and/or refer to the species-specific guides, for the most common species, prepared by North Carolina State Extension: Tagetes, erecta, lucida, patula, and tenuifolia. See also Clemson Cooperative Extension’s excellent guide.
Garden and Landscape Design
Purposefully designing with marigolds has a history, with examples in their use as diverse as Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula) and William Robinson’s (1838-1935) influential The English Flower Garden (3rd ed. 1893). The latter suggests marigolds for use in beds as well as borders, notable for colorful blooms with which a picture can be painted. The practice continues today. Even earlier, marigolds appear in Joseph Breck’s (1794-1873) 1851 The Flower Garden, which has brief discussions of Tagetes erecta and Tagetes patula.
Marigolds also do very well in containers and can be especially attractive on decks, porches, and patios; use dwarf varieties. You have to not mind their smell, though many contemporary marigolds are said to have a far less pronounced odor than their predecessors. Since they thrive in the same conditions, combine members of the genus Tagetes and the genus Calendula. Marigolds also do well as cut flowers. Removing leaves will reduce odor.
Different Tagetes species and cultivars may work better than other species and cultivars in different garden environments. Combining French marigolds (Tagetes patula) with signet marigolds (Tagetes tenuifolia) can make an attractive border. French marigolds (Tagetes patula) work well alone as a border. Because of their size, African marigolds (Tagetes erecta) work best as background. Since there are so many colors – not to mention sizes to choose from — give attention to arrangement and theories of complementary colors. This applies to other marigolds as well as the other plants, objects, and garden backdrop. Marigolds can add vibrant and massed color to any garden, so the extended period of time over which they will bloom should be considered. They are a very economical annual plant, because they grow so readily from seeds. Photographs in garden books and on the Web may serve as a source of aspiration and inspiration. For some good advice and a beautiful image, visit Gary R, Bachman’s Marigolds supply lasting color, help tomatoes. The featured image will give you an excellent sense of size and color.
The Repelling and Attracting Power of Marigolds
Deer and rabbits find the aroma of marigolds offensive. The jury is out though as to whether marigolds repel insect pests. In fact, the USDA identifies 15 pests that assault them; among them: aphids, Japanese beetles, and spider mites. And they are also susceptible to viral infections. Marigolds can attract insects, though, that attack insect pests! In addition, marigolds can be a powerful tool with which to control nematodes, the pesky tiny worms that feed on plants by piercing their roots. Marigold roots emit a toxic chemical that inhibits the hatching of nematode eggs. For this to work though, marigolds must be planted at least two months prior to the planting of vegetables and at the same location where the vegetable crop is to be planted. Not all species or varieties will be effective. A study does show that French marigolds may deter whiteflies from attacking tomatoes. For a thorough review of this topic, see The Garden Shed article Magical Repelling Powers of Marigolds – Myth or Fact?
Some pollinators love marigolds, and they are an excellent food source for Lepidoptera caterpillars, which transform into butterflies and moths. To encourage pollinators, plant varieties with open centers; among these are the Tagetes patula varieties. In fact, the Latin word patula means “wide spreading habit.” To attract a diversity of pollinators, and for aesthetic impact, consider artfully mixing flowers with different shaped heads.
Eating Marigolds
There are over 50 species of marigolds (Tagetes). At least some marigold blossoms and even greenery are definitely edible; but edible does not necessarily mean tasty. Some cooperative extension websites that reference the edibility of marigolds are: Colorado State University Extension’s Edible Flowers (Calendula, Tagetes erecta, and Tagetes tenuifolia), University of Minnesota Extension’s Marigolds (Tagetes tenuifolia), and Master Gardeners of Northern Virginia’s Edible Flowers in the Vegetable Garden (recommending ‘Lemon Gem’ and ‘Tangerine Gem’ and ‘French Vanilla’). Under its marigold entry The Oxford Companion to Food briefly discusses Tagetes minuta, Tagetes lucida, and Tagetes lemmonii. The pot marigold, Calendula officinalis (a different genus), sometimes called the poor man’s saffron, but more commonly the pot marigold, has a long history of consumption in the Old World. Of Tagetes, the French marigold (Tagetes patula), the African marigold (Tagetes erecta), the Mexican mint marigold (Tagetes lucida), and the lemon marigold (Tagetes tenuifolia) are identified as edible in a MasterClass sponsored piece. Flower petals may readily be used in salads. Avoid a bitter taste by trimming off the white or pale green heel at the petal’s base. Marigolds have been consumed in various ways for a very long time, from herbal medicines, to garnishes, to food coloring, to teas, to seasonings and condiments, and as ingredients.
Readers with a more scientific interest in marigold edibility may wish to consider such research pieces as “Edible Flowers with the Common Name ‘Marigold’: Their Therapeutic Values and Processing,” which is cited fully under Sources. There is a history of Tagetes being identified as mildly toxic and especially mildly toxic to cats and dogs, with cats indicated as being most affected. The sap of Tagetes is indicated as an irritant. If a pet has a reaction, as always, consult a veterinarian. Quantity of exposure is likely to determine the extent of a reaction, if any.
For an introduction to this culinary delight, consider Leona Woodring Smith’s The Forgotten Art of Flower Cookery (Pelican Publishing Company, Inc., 1985, c1973). On edible flowers in general, consider Rosalind Creasy’s The Edible Flower Garden (Periplus Editions, 1999) and the wise advice offered in Dixie Sandborn’s Edible flowers: Adding color, flavor and fun to your dinner plate. Before consuming, be certain there are absolutely no chemicals present of any form or type, proceed after exercising your own “due diligence,” sample a small amount, and only then let your taste buds be your guide.
In Conclusion
I hope you will explore the sources below as well as the truly large body of marigold information on the Web, the size of which is testimony to the enduring popularity of this plant. Marigolds, including Calendula officinalis or pot marigold, have been widely used by humans across time and place, as well as subject to our manipulations. After reading this article, perhaps you’ll never look at marigolds quite the same way again and your interest will be sparked to learn more.
Sources
Books and Book Chapters
Breck, Joseph. The Flower Garden: Or, Breck’s Book of Flowers; In Which Are Discussed All The Various Hardy Herbaceous Perennials, Annuals, Shrubby Plants, And Evergreen Trees, Desirable For Ornamental Purposes, With Directions For Their Cultivation. John P. Jewett & Company, 1851.
Cruz, Martín de la, et al. An Aztec Herbal: The Classic Codex of 1552. Translated from the Latin by William Gates with an introduction by Bruce E. Byland. Dover Publications, 2000.
Boddy, Kasia. “Marigold.” Blooming Flowers: A Seasonal History of Plants and People. Yale University Press, 2020, pp. 140-149.
Grissell, Eric. “Of Marigolds, Dahlias, and Zinnias.” A History of Zinnias: Flower for the Ages. Purdue University Press, 2020, pp. 33-45.
Hernández, Francisco (1514-1578). Historia de las Plantas de Nueva España. Edited by Isaac Ochoterena. Imprenta Universitaria, Mexico, 1942-1946. 3 vols. The cempoaxóchitl entry is found in vol. II, book iv, pp. 644-652.
“Marigold.” The Oxford Companion to Food. Edited by Alan Davidson. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Restall, Matthew. When Montezuma Met Cortés: The True Story of the Meeting that Changed History. HarperCollins Publishers, 2018.
Robinson, William. The English Flower Garden: Style, Position & Arrangement. 3rd ed. John Murray, 1893. First ed. 1883.
Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de (1499-1590). Historia general de las Cosas de Nueva España. General History of the Things of New Spain. A facsimile of the original is freely accessible through the Library of Congress. A translated edition by Charles E. Dibble and Arthur J. O. Anderson, Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research, 1950/1982 is available in libraries and is purchasable. A translated and searchable digital version, sponsored by the Getty, will begin to become available in 2023. See Book XI: Natural Things.
Articles
Campbell, Cleve. Piedmont Master Gardeners. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Magical Repelling Powers of Marigolds – Myth or Fact? The Garden Shed Newsletter, vol. 3, no. 12 (December 2017).
Chavarria, Allan and Guillermo C. Espinosa. “Cruz-Badiano Codex and the Importance of the Mexican Medicinal Plants.” Journal of Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Management, vol. 7, no. 1 May 2019, pp. 15-22.
Chitrakar, Bimal, Min Zhang, and Bhesh Bhandari. “Edible Flowers with the Common Name “Marigold”: Their Therapeutic Values and Processing.” Trends in Food Science & Technology, vol. 89, July, 2019, pp. 76-87.
Graziera, Patrizia. “Concept of the Garden in Pre-Hispanic Mexico.” Garden History vol. 29, no. 2, Winter 2001, pp. 185-213.
Macht, David I. “Calendula or Marigold in Medical History and in Shakespeare.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 29, no. 6. November-December 1955, pp. 491-502.
Morehart, Christopher T., Abgail Meza Peñaloza, Carlos Serrano Sanchez, Emily McClung de Tapia, and Emilio Ibarra Morales. “Human Sacrifice During the Epiclassic Period in the Northern Basin of Mexico.” Latin American Antiquity, vol. 23, no. 4, December 2012, pp. 426-448.
Neher, Robert Trostle. “The Ethnobotany of Tagetes.” Economic Botany, vol. 22, no. 4, October-December 1968, pp. 317-325.
Schorn, Joel. “Is Dia de los muertos the same as All Souls Day?” U.S. Catholic, vol. 75, no.11. Winter 2010, p. 46.
Websites
Bachman, Gary R. Mississippi State University Extension. Marigolds supply lasting color, help tomatoes.
Clemson Cooperative Extension. Marigold.
Colorado State University Extension. Edible Flowers.
Doleschal, Mareike. Shakespeare Birthplace Trust. Shakespeare’s Favorite Flowers: The Marigold.
Dowling, Nancy. Master Gardeners of Northern Virginia. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Edible Flowers in the Vegetable Garden.
Glancey, Jonathan. BBC. The Templo Mayor: A Place for Human Sacrifice.
Halford, Bethany. Chemical and Engineering News. The Chemistry Behind Marigolds’ Pest-Control Power.
International Atomic Energy Agency. What is Mutation Breeding?
IMDb (International Movie Database). The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel.
IMDb (International Movie Database). Coco.
IMDb (International Movie Database). The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds.
IMDb (International Movie Database). Flor de Muertos.
IMDb (International Movie Database). Marigold.
IMDb (International Movie Database). Monsoon Wedding.
IMDb (International Movie Database). The Second Best Marigold Hotel.
MasterClass. Are Marigolds Edible? How to Identify and Consume Marigolds.
Mexicolore. Aztec Pleasure Gardens.
Mexicolore. The Aztec Art of Mourning.
Mexicolore. Cemopoalxochitl.
Mexicolore. Four Hundred Flowers: The Aztec Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Part 1. Yauhtli and Cempoalxochitl
Mexicolore. How to cure the stiffening of the serpent: herbal medicine, Aztec style.
Monticello. Thomas Jefferson, Monticello and the African Marigold
Monticello. Thomas Jefferson, Monticello and the French Marigold
North Carolina State Extension. Calendula officinalis.
North Carolina State Extension. Tagetes.
North Carolina State Extension. Tagetes erecta.
North Carolina State Extension. Tagetes lucida.
North Carolina State Extension. Tagetes patula.
North Carolina State Extension. Tagetes tenuifolia.
North Carolina State Extension. Ailanthus Webworn.
Rhys, Dani. Symbolsage. Marigold Flowers — Meaning and Symbolism.
Sandborn, Dixie. Michigan State University Extension. Edible flowers: Adding color, flavor and fun to your dinner plate.
Toronto Master Gardeners. Growing Marigolds for Seed and Cross Pollination.
Vidaurri, Cynthia. Smithsonian Magazine. Did Disney Pixar Get the Day of the Dead Celebrations Right in Its Film ‘Coco’?
University of Massachusetts Extension. Landscape, Nursery and Urban Forestry Program. Pollinators in the Landscape II: Plants and Pollinators.
University of Minnesota Extension. Marigolds.
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Ailanthus Webworm Moth.
Wisconsin Horticulture, Division of Extension. Calendula, Calendula officinalis.
Videos
Ankit’s Terrace Garden. How to Grow Marigold Plant From Its Cutting (Step By Step).
Garden Gate Magazine. Milk Jug Seed Starting.
Garden Ideas. Grow Marigold Cutting Only in Water, How to Grow Cutting.
University of Maryland Extension. Seed Starting in Recycled Milk Jugs.
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